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Bibliography
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The mouse, which has long been
used as a laboratory animal, is an ideal model on which to study
gene function. Nearly twenty years ago the first transgenic mice
were produced by inserting transgenes into the mouse genome.
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Brinster RL, Chen HY, Trumbauer ME, Senear AW, Warren
R and Palmiter RD
Factors affecting the efficiency of introduction foreign
DNA into mice by microinjecting eggs. Proc Natl Acad Sci
(USA), 1985; 82: 4438-4442.
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Camper SA
Research applications of transgenic mice
Biotechniques, 1987; 5, 638-650
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DePamphilis ML, Herman
SA, Martinez-Salas E, Chalifour LE, Wirak DO, Cupo DY and
Miranda M
Microinjecting DNA into mouse ova to study DNA replication
and gene expression and to produce transgenic animals.
Biotechniques, 1988; 6: 662-680.
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This technique does not allow
the selection of the insertion site or the copy number. Homologous
recombination targets the mutation to a locus of interest. This
technological breakthrough allows the inactivation of genes (knock-out
models) and the targeted insertion of transgenes (knock-in models).
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KR Thomas and MR Capecchi
Site-directed mutagenesis by gene targeting in mouse embryo-derived
stem cells.
Cell, 1987; 51(3): 503-12.
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Ramirez-Solis, R, Bradley,
A
Advances in the Use of Embryonic Stem Cell Technology.
Curr Opin Biotechnol, 1994; 5: 528-533.
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Galli-Taliadoros LA, Sedgwick
JD, Wood SA, Korner H
Gene Knock-out Technology: A Methodological Overview for the
Interested Novice.
J Immunol Meth, 1995; 181: 1-15.
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Camper SA, Saunders TL,
Kendall SK, Keri RA, Seasholtz AF, Gordon DF, Birkmeier TS,
Keegan CE, Karolyi IJ, Roller ML.
Implementing transgenic and embryonic stem cell technology
to study gene expression, cell-cell interactions and gene
function.
Biol Reprod, 1995; 52: 246-57.
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Müller U
Ten years of gene targeting: targeted mouse mutants, from
vector design to phenotype analysis.
Mechanisms of Development, 1999; 82: 3-21.
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Cells containing the modification
will transmit the mutation to the whole organism. In certain conditions,
such as a deleterious effect of a mutation, it is necessary to limit
the modification tissue-specifically. Tissue-restricted mutation
has thus been developed (conditional strategies).
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Michaeline Bunting, Kenneth
E. Bernstein, Joy M. Greer, Mario R. Capecchi, and Kirk R.
Thomas
Targeting genes for self-excision in the germ line
Genes & Dev., 1999; 13: 1524-1528.
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Zhi-Wei Li, Gerlinde Stark,
Jürgen Götz, Thomas Rülicke, Ulrike Müller,
and Charles Weissmann
Generation of mice with a 200-kb amyloid precursor protein
gene deletion by Cre recombinase-mediated site-specific recombination
in embryonic stem cells.
PNAS, 1996; 93: 6158-6162.
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A Nagy
Cre recombinase: the universal reagent for genome tailoring.
Genesis, 2000; 26(2): 99-109.
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J Schaft, R Ashery-Padan,
F van der Hoeven, P Gruss, and AF Stewart
Efficient FLP recombination in mouse ES cells and oocytes.
Genesis, 2001; 31(1): 6-10.
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CI Rodríguez, F
Buchholz, J Galloway, R Sequerra, J Kasper, R Ayala, AF Stewart,
and SM Dymecki
High-efficiency deleter mice show that FLPe is an alternative
to Cre-loxP.
Nat Genet, 2000; 25(2): 139-40.
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In recent years, some improvements
of the previous methods have been developed that allow better gene
analysis.
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WC Skarnes, JE Moss, SM
Hurtley, and RSP Beddington
Capturing Genes Encoding Membrane and Secreted Proteins Important
for Mouse Development.
PNAS, 1995; 92: 6592-6596
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J Seibler, D Schübeler,
S Fiering, M Groudine, and J Bode
DNA cassette exchange in ES cells mediated by Flp recombinase:
an efficient strategy for repeated modification of tagged
loci by marker-free constructs.
Biochemistry, 1998; 37(18): 6229-34.
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P Mountford, B Zevnik,
A Duwel, J Nichols, M Li, C Dani, M Robertson, I Chambers,
and A Smith
Dicistronic Targeting Constructs: Reporters and Modifiers
of Mammalian Gene Expression.
PNAS, 1994; 91: 4303-4307.
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Andreas Kistner, Manfred
Gossen, Frank Zimmermann, Jasna Jerecic, Christoph Ullmer,
Hermann Lübbert, and Hermann Bujard
Doxycycline-mediated quantitative and tissue-specific control
of gene expression in transgenic mice.
PNAS, 1996; 93: 10933-10938.
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J Brocard, R Feil, P Chambon,
and D Metzger
A chimeric Cre recombinase inducible by synthetic,but not
by natural ligands of the glucocorticoid receptor.
Nucleic Acids Res., 1998; 26(17): 4086-90.
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Recently, two techniques have
been developed: nuclear transfer and the use of lentiviruses in
place of transgene micro-injection.
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The nuclear transfer should
pave the way for development of gene targeted models in species
other than the mouse.
The lentiviruses could provide an efficient system to generate transgenic
models in new species, but their use is limited to small-size transgenes
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Teruhiko Wakayama, Ivan
Rodriguez, Anthony C. F. Perry, Ryuzo Yanagimachi, and Peter
Mombaerts
Mice cloned from embryonic stem cells.
PNAS, 1999; 96: 14984-14989.
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T Wakayama and R Yanagimachi
Cloning of male mice from adult tail-tip cells.
Nat Genet, 1999; 22(2): 127-8.
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Alexander Pfeifer, Masahito
Ikawa, Yelena Dayn, and Inder M. Verma
Transgenesis by lentiviral vectors: Lack of gene silencing
in mammalian embryonic stem cells and preimplantation embryos.
PNAS, 2002; 99: 2140-2145.
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